1. IntroductionTop
Terraced landscapes are among the most remarkable cultural landscapes in mountain areas worldwide and could easily by characterized as the “Van Goghs” of cultural landscapes (Rodewald, 2011). They are characterized by man-made terraced areas (Konoid, 1996) each comprising a group of terraces (e.g. several field terraces) and form a compact, uniform landscape. Terraces and embankments are the dominant elements in this type of cultural landscape (Lingeri et al., 2007). Terraced landscapes typically provide a variety of ecosystem services (Koohafkan & Altieri, 2011; Romero-Díaz et al., 2019) and have a high ecological, cultural, identificatory, and recreational value. They are considered to be among Switzerland's heritage (patrimoine) landscapes, which are worthy of protection (Rodewald, 2018). The French term patrimoine refers to the cultural and historical heritage of a landscape (see also Rodewald & Liechti, 2016). It focuses on the existing historical expression of a man-made area that has experienced structural and economic changes but in which historically grown and long-lasting structures have been respected and preserved (Rodewald et al., 2014). The term also refers to a kind of “common ownership” that creates a close bond between terraced landscapes and the local people. The Lavaux vineyard terraces, for instance, form the only Swiss cultural landscape that is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (UNESCO, 2018). The fact that terraced landscapes bring together nature and human life also shows in the broad range of landscape qualities that terraced landscapes provide to society (Rodewald et al., 2014, Bonardi & Varotto, 2016; Tillmann & Salas, 2016).
Despite these qualities, Swiss terraced landscapes, like those in other countries (see e.g. Vos & Meekes, 1999; Wei et al., 2016), are under pressure. On the one hand, the pressure comes from land use intensification, be it in the form of construction activities (e.g. urban sprawl; Price et al., 2015) or in the form of intensified agriculture (Ewald & Klaus, 2009; Raemy, 2010). On the other hand, terraced landscapes are threatened by the abandonment of marginal agricultural land and subsequent forest regrowth (see e.g. Werder & Michael, 2008, on the example of Bregaglia in the Grisons, Dutly Bondietti, 2009, on the history of the small terraced village of Linescio in Ticino) or natural hazards. Accordingly, actors involved in projects for the conservation and recultivation of terraced landscapes frequently have to both consider and counteract strong societal dynamics. It is therefore crucial that projects aimed at conserving or reconstructing (abandoned) terraced landscapes take a long-term perspective by seeking to meet sustainability criteria. These must reflect all three dimensions of sustainable development – the ecological, the economic, and the sociocultural (see e.g. Preamble of the European Landscape Convention, Council of Europe, 2000). This, in turn, may justify the conservation of terraced landscapes that are considered a cultural heritage of historical and human value even if it is economically unprofitable (Stanchi et al., 2012).
1.1. Conservation, change, and sustainability in relation to terraced landscapes
The success of applying the sustainability concept to landscapes depends strongly on whether the use of the various goods and services that the respective landscape provides can be politically regulated in such a way that over- or underuse is avoided, yields remain sustainable, and a balance is found between culture and nature. Shortages in landscape as a resource occur not only when landscapes are affected by ecological damage, such loss of biodiversity, but also – and this is no less important – when their aesthetic and sociocultural qualities are impaired. These latter qualities are crucial to the fact that we perceive our surroundings as a landscape and describe them as such. This is particularly true of terraced landscapes, which are a particularly pronounced form of human-made cultural landscape and ultimately also depend on human use. Inappropriate use and wrong maintenance causes just as much loss of value as does the complete abandonment of use.
Terraced landscapes' main basic value consists of the alternation between embankments and terraces (including all their technical aspects like water draining systems, stairs, niches, etc.), which form the “skeleton” of the landscape. Conservation efforts thus focus on the shape of the landscape. By contrast, landscape change and sustainability considerations relate more to the use of the terraces. Accordingly, conservation of terraced landscapes could either refer to protection of the pattern of drystone walls alternating with green banks across a mountain slope, regardless of whether the landscape has been abandoned or not. Or it could be framed as a combination of active use of the terraces by means of traditional or adapted cultivation techniques and maintenance of the landscape's morphological skeleton. Only if conservation is understood in this latter, wider way is it possible to preserve a large-scale terraced landscape (see e.g. Bätzing, 2014; Lasanta et al., 2016; Scharrer et al., 2018). The way to sustainable terraced landscapes therefore leads through negotiation and balancing of a regime of careful use, which is critical for the maintenance of landscape qualities (Rodewald, 2007).
In the present paper, we investigate basic conditions – in the sense of potential success factors – that need to be considered when developing and operating landscape conservation projects. We propose a framework of basic formal and procedural conditions that must be fulfilled to enable long-term conservation of terraced landscapes, and illustrate and validate them with several Swiss examples of former vineyard and crop terraces. Based on these, we show important success factors, which have to be considered with regard to the conservation of terraced landscapes.
2. MethodologyTop
This paper is based on our own research and practice in the field of initiating, financing, and advising projects for the conservation of terraced landscapes with an agricultural production function. Some of our research was conducted within the Swiss Proterra project (2003-2013) directed by the Swiss Foundation for Landscape Conservation (German: Stiftung Landschaftsschutz Schweiz SL); results were presented in various publications we refer to in this paper (Lingeri et al., 2007; Rodewald, 2007). Further research we refer to here was carried out in the context of the international research project “Landmarks – Understanding pre-industrial structures in rural and mining landscapes" (COSTA27, 2005–2007) (Rodewald, 2006 a, b) and of an analysis of terraced landscapes in the Valais (Rodewald, 2011). Several case studies within both projects involved interviews with experts and local actors. The three cases selected for this paper consist of projects that successfully reactivated agricultural uses in order to maintain and rebuild terraced landscapes that had formerly been partly abandoned. Each one represents one of the three types of terraced landscapes found in Switzerland (see below). In a first step, we establish a framework of basic formal and procedural conditions required for the ecologically, economically, and culturally sustainable revival of agricultural uses of terraced land (desk study approach based on bibliographical review). In a second step, we illustrate and validate these conditions based on investigations into project proceedings carried out together with local actors (field study approach). The reported experiences from the case study projects include information about logistical and financial management, farmers' involvement and benefits, as well as the involvement of diverse other actors (local and nonlocal).
3. Overview of terraced landscapes in SwitzerlandTop
Based on our research within the Swiss Proterra project (Lingeri et al., 2007; Rodewald, 2007), we identified 76 major terraced landscapes in Switzerland and their characteristics. They are mainly used for vines or meadows and pastures. When categorizing them according to the way in which the terraced areas are embedded in the landscape, we worked with a slightly modified set of existing criteria (Ambroise et al., 1989), such as “extensiveness”, “compactness”, and “landscape pattern”. This led us to distinguish three physiographic types of terraced landscapes:
- Type I: Terraced landscapes with extensive terraced areas (8 terraced landscapes; see Figure 1a and case study Ramosch; Figure 2)
- Type II: Terraced landscapes with patches of extensive terraced areas (31 terraced landscapes; see Figure 1b and case study VinEsch; Figure 2)
- Type III: Terraced landscapes with scattered small terraced areas (37 terraced landscapes; see Figure 1c and case study Mergoscia; Figure 2)
|
Figura 1. a-c: Tipos fisiográficos de paisajes de terrazas en Suiza. |
|
Figura 2: Paisajes de terrazas en Suiza por tipoy cultivo principal (círculos en rojo son casos de estudio). |
Figure 2 shows the location, characteristics, and distribution of terraced landscapes in Switzerland.
4. Evaluation of formal and procedural conditions for terraced landscape conservation projectsTop
We found that a number of formal and procedural conditions are crucial to promoting large-scale projects for the conservation of terraced landscapes. By formal conditions, we mean general incentives for the protection and maintenance of cultural landscapes based on public policies. By procedural conditions, we refer to the specific requirements that need to be fulfilled at the local project level to ensure a project's success and sustainable outcomes.
4.1. Formal conditions for terraced landscape conservation
With regard to formal conditions for sustainable development of terraced landscapes, we distinguish the following five levels: (1) normative protection, (2) planning security, (3) maintenance support, (4) targeted land management, and (5) management, project coordination, and cooperation (Rodewald, 2007)[1].
At the level of normative protection, the question is whether a given landscape has a formal protection status or is included in a national inventory (e.g. the Swiss Federal Inventory of Landscapes and Natural Monuments of National Importance, ILNM). Switzerland's terraced landscapes are not protected as such or listed as such in any federal (or cantonal) inventory. Only one landscape listed in the ILNM is practically identical to an area of terraced vineyards, namely Lavaux on the northern shore of Lake Geneva; another listed landscape overlaps to a large extent with an area of terraced vineyards on the northern shore of Lake Biel. However, various terraced landscapes are part of a larger landscape listed in the ILNM.
At the level of planning security, enabling conditions mainly include specific spatial planning measures. In Switzerland, agricultural land is protected by its inclusion in an agricultural zone. This ensures that the construction of new buildings is limited to agricultural buildings as well as buildings and infrastructure that are necessarily dependent on a specific location. Inclusion in an agricultural zone thus guarantees the structural preservation of agricultural landscapes. Most of Switzerland's terraced landscapes belong to an agricultural zone; but some of them, especially those located near settlements, fall into building zones. Up to 2013, land in an agricultural zone that was overgrown with forest automatically fell under the legal protection of the forest law. Since 2013, this is no longer the case; the cantons are free to “freeze” boundaries between forest and agricultural land if they seek to prevent a steady increase in forest (Article 10 of the Federal Act on Forest).
At the level of maintenance support, terraced landscape conservation depends on measures to support ongoing and periodic maintenance of the structural elements in terraced landscapes. These include drystone walls, embankments, paths, stairs, water pipes, traditional agricultural buildings, and special facilities (pergolas, beehives, caverns, etc.). Maintenance support can be public (e.g. governmental support for structural improvement) or private (e.g. project support from NGOs and foundations).
At the level of targeted land management, enabling conditions are created by means of governmental instruments to support and guide the productive use of agricultural land. This comprises subsidies (i.e. agricultural direct payments according to cultivated area, slope, biodiversity, or landscape qualities) and environmental regulations.
At the level of project management, incentives for participatory bottom-up planning processes and initiatives (e.g. regional policies) help to enhance coordination and cooperation.
4.2. Procedural conditions for terraced landscape conservation
Unlike the formal conditions, enabling procedural conditions are determined by success factors related to the development and operation of landscape conservation projects at the local project level. Based on our literature and case studies analysis, we identified 13 success factors (Table 1). We assume that the degrees to which these success factors are present in a project give an indication on the extent to which that project is sustainable in the long term.
Table 1: Procedural conditions for terraced landscape conservation (adapted and expanded from Lingeri et al., 2007; Rodewald, 2007)
Tabla 1: Condiciones de procedimiento para la conservación de los paisajes de terrazas (adaptado y ampliado de Lingeri et al., 2007; Rodewald, 2007)
| Sustainability dimensions | Procedural conditions (success factors) | Description |
|---|---|---|
| General | Long-term nature | Landscape enhancement is promising if the measures implemented produce long-term benefits for the landscape, its direct users (agriculture, tourism, etc.) and the general (local) population. |
| Sociocultural dimension | Legal protection | A binding legal basis, for example in the form of protection zones that exclude certain undesirable developments, is crucial for the preservation of a landscape and the long-term safeguardance of the project objectives. |
| Participation of the landowners | Landowners play a key role when it comes to the future use of their land. They have certain responsibilities and influence important decisions. The better they are involved, the more likely the project will be successful. | |
| Participation of the local population | A landscape is part of the local culture. A project's chances of success are enhanced if the local population can identify with it and actively participates in its development and implementation. | |
| Coherence among actors | Because different actors have different roles in society, coordination among them is essential. Ideally, they should complement each other. This requires successful negotiation of shared interests, objectives, and decisions within the network of involved actors. | |
| Governing body | A broadly supported but locally anchored governing body is the basis for successful project implementation. This requires adequate management structures, information flows, actor coordination, and rules for landscape use and monitoring. | |
| Conflict resolution mechanisms | In order to identify, negotiate, and resolve conflicts, sound conflict resolution mechanisms need to be established from the beginning. | |
| Acceptance by and inclusion of authorities | Cooperation between the project's governing body and the authorities as well as other circles with project experience is needed to ensure that local ideas can be supported and linked with existing incentives and instruments. | |
| Economic dimension | Initial project budget | A reasonable initial project budget is decisive not only for acceptance and success, but also for possible continuation of the project. |
| Coverage of operating costs | Recurring project costs should be in a reasonable proportion to project benefits. Operating costs should ideally be financed largely from the project, without requiring major sponsoring. | |
| Economic importance of land use | An economic benefit of the project is important, as it increases appreciation of the landscape and social acceptance of the project. | |
| Ecological dimension | Ecological integration | Land use must be adapted to local natural conditions. Furthermore, it must help to stabilize dynamic natural processes. |
| Habitat creation and protection | Land use has to create and protect habitats for flora and fauna. |
5. Terraced landscapes in Switzerland: Case studiesTop
In order to illustrate and validate the formal and procedural conditions identified, we examined their applicability in one representative project of each of the three types of terraced landscapes in Switzerland: Mergoscia (meadows and pastures, chestnut, vineyards, crops), VinEsch (vineyards), and Ramosch (meadows and crops). We were involved in all three projects during the last 10 years, thereby gaining the competence required to evaluate the outcomes of the projects as compared to the initial situation and the project goals. The selected projects concern terraced landscapes on a broader level; this enabled us to exclude overly specific situations that could not have been generalized to the level of large-scale conservation of terraced landscapes.
The following project profiles provide a short description of the project and an evaluation of selected formal and procedural conditions.
As the descriptions of the three case studies show, the basic conditions enabling long-term conservation of the terraced landscapes differ. The spider graph (Figure 3) illustrates these differences by means of the formal conditions and the 13 success factors of the procedural conditions. The influence of the success factors on sustainability outcomes was graded into the four categories “high”, “medium”, “small”, and “negative”. The graphs show that the project in Ramosch, which fully meets the formal conditions for successful projects, is also the most successful when considering the procedural conditions. However, formal conditions alone cannot guarantee successful promotion and sustainable outcomes of a project. The 13 success factors we identified must also be fulfilled in a well-balanced way to enable sustainable project development. The balance between them is mainly determined by local social processes, which are often influenced by local history and memories. The case study of VinEsch shows a type of “citizenship relation” between people living or working in urban areas, on the one hand, and a rural area to which they feel committed, on the other. They exercise the partly exclusive privilege of working in the vineyard in a team of likeminded people. This shared identity could easily be lost in the event of social conflicts among members or an increase in economic obligations. Whether such a potential gap would be filled by local authorities or other local actors is completely unclear. Compared to VinEsch the case study of Mergoscia shows clear advantages in the involvement of local actors, actor diversity, and wider actor networks. The case study of Ramosch further shows that integrating a conservation project and its governing body into a wider range of cultural projects may be a crucial success factor. Doing so provides a certain economic and social buffer for each individual small project, as it becomes part of a regional self-image under a widely accepted philosophy of “the right way to look ahead to the future”.
|
Figura 3: Gráficos de araña que muestran el grado de cumplimiento de los 13 factores de éxito para los tres caso de estudio: Mergoscia, VinEsch y Ramosch. |
The results show that a broadly anchored and locally and externally accepted governing body might be closely linked to the long-term nature of a project. Such a governing body is in a position to deal with the complexity of management, financing, project coordination, and cooperation while promoting coherence among actors and integrating relevant local and interested external actors (e.g. NGOs, national and cantonal authorities, the general public) into communal structures. This, in turn, enhances other success factors, such as ecological integration and habitat conservation, generation of funds to cover operating costs, inclusion of communal work (e.g. by land users or volunteers), and even legal protection.
6. Conclusion and OutlookTop
Swiss experiences of enhancing and maintaining terraced landscapes suggest that a broadly anchored and locally and externally accepted governing body, the involvement of project insiders and outsiders as well as the economic, social, and ecological value added that the project generates are crucial success factors that enhance a project's long-term success. The better a single project is embedded in a regional ecological, sociocultural, and economic setting, the more it will be buffered against short-term adversities such as shortages of finances or personnel and yield fluctuations. When aiming at maintaining the various qualities that terraced landscapes contribute to society, the framework presented in this article provides a basis for a first appraisal of a project's potential for successful long-term terraced landscape conservation. In order to evaluate its applicability, it should now be tested in other contexts and countries.
Because terraced landscapes are frequently simply considered as productive agricultural land, making their structural “skeleton” (embankments and drystone walls) a precondition for land use, and because terraces and embankments remain stable for a long time after their productive use is given up, public awareness usually only emerges when the drystone walls begin to crumble, the soil starts to erode, and hazards arise. At this point, however, it is often too late to initiate a conservation project, due to the high initial costs of restoring the skeleton to eventually enable the renewed use of the terraces. It is therefore essential to start conservation projects long before the terraces show visually recognizable signs of decay. This requires two things: first, the nationwide (and worldwide) identification and characterization of terraced landscapes; and second, on this basis, the development of appropriate policies and actions for their conservation. While the mere restoration of walls and embankments in the sense of museum-like conservation might be valuable for individual outstanding examples, conservation must generally go far beyond that. From a large-scale perspective, we need a clear view of priorities, necessary inputs, and potential outcomes when reactivating terraces. In this context, the consideration of formal and procedural (pre-) conditions for successful recultivation projects enables a targeted pre-evaluation and weighing of project aims and opportunities.